Ethical dilemmas are the heart of the toughest calls in criminal justice. These aren’t situations with clear right and wrong answers, but rather involve conflicting values and potential harms. Understanding what makes a situation an ethical dilemma and having the tools to analyze them thoughtfully is essential for anyone seeking to uphold the core promise of justice for all.
In this section, we’ll delve into a step-by-step process for working through ethical dilemmas, examine common scenarios faced across the criminal justice system, and explore how to evaluate not just the immediate outcome of our choices, but their long-term impact on communities and the system itself.
Framework for Analyzing Ethical Dilemmas
Ethical dilemmas in the criminal justice system rarely present simple solutions. Instead, they require careful consideration of competing values, legal obligations, and the potential consequences of different courses of action. A structured approach helps ensure that all relevant factors are weighed before making a decision. The following framework provides a step-by-step method for analyzing ethical dilemmas in a thoughtful and reasoned manner.
Defining the Ethical Dilemma
The first step in ethical decision-making is identifying the core issue at hand. Ethical dilemmas often involve competing values, such as balancing honesty with professional loyalty or applying legal guidelines while considering the unique circumstances of an individual case. Professionals should ask themselves whether they are prioritizing legal obligations, ethical duties, or personal values, and whether there is a conflict between these factors (Jones & Harris, 2017).
Stakeholder analysis is also critical. Every ethical decision impacts multiple parties, including individuals directly involved in a case, the broader community, and the criminal justice institution itself. Professionals should carefully consider how different groups may be affected by their choices and recognize that various stakeholders may have competing interests (Taylor & Morgan, 2020). Additionally, legal considerations must be clarified. While laws provide a foundation for decision-making, ethical responsibilities often extend beyond strict legal compliance.
Gathering and Evaluating Information
Once the ethical dilemma has been defined, the next step is gathering all relevant information. This includes assessing whether any initial assumptions may be influencing the perception of the situation. Professionals should pause and ask whether they are acting based on objective facts or if unconscious factors may be shaping their judgments (Perez & Singh, 2018).
Seeking input from trusted colleagues, supervisors, or professional advisors can provide additional insights and help ensure that all perspectives are considered. Ethical decision-making should not occur in isolation, especially in complex cases where multiple factors must be weighed. Furthermore, professionals should anticipate the potential short-term and long-term consequences of their decisions, considering both the immediate effects and the broader impact on the integrity of the justice system.
Identifying Ethical Principles and Values
Applying ethical frameworks can provide clarity when making difficult choices. Some situations may involve consequentialist reasoning, which prioritizes the overall impact of a decision, while others may require deontological reasoning, which focuses on adherence to rules and principles (Jones & Harris, 2017). In many cases, criminal justice professionals must also balance the rights of individuals against broader concerns for public safety.
Personal and professional values also play a role in ethical decision-making. Every professional in the field should consider how their choices align with the values they strive to uphold, such as fairness, accountability, and respect for due process (Taylor & Morgan, 2020). Identifying commonly accepted ethical principles—such as avoiding harm and ensuring procedural fairness—can provide additional guidance.
Weighing Options and Prioritizing Considerations
Ethical dilemmas often present difficult trade-offs. In many cases, there is no perfect solution, and some ethical considerations may need to be partially compromised to uphold more pressing values. Recognizing this reality allows professionals to approach decision-making with a sense of balance rather than expecting an ideal outcome (Perez & Singh, 2018).
Justification is a critical part of ethical reasoning. A well-reasoned decision should be explainable to colleagues, supervisors, and the public. Professionals should be prepared to articulate why they chose a particular course of action and how it aligns with ethical principles. Simply following intuition is not enough—decisions should be based on clear, logical reasoning supported by ethical frameworks.
Additionally, when multiple interests are at stake, minimizing harm should be a guiding principle. If all available options involve some degree of negative impact, professionals should choose the path that reduces harm while preserving fairness and integrity (Taylor & Morgan, 2020).
Taking Action and Reflecting on the Decision
Once a decision has been made, it is important to act with integrity and confidence. Hesitation or inconsistency can undermine trust in the justice system. However, ethical decision-making does not end with action; it also requires reflection. Many ethical dilemmas provide learning opportunities that can inform future decisions and professional development.
In complex cases, documenting the decision-making process is essential for transparency and accountability. Keeping records of the reasoning behind a decision allows for later review by colleagues or oversight bodies and ensures that ethical considerations were thoroughly examined.
Ethical Principles as Competing Values
Ethical principles such as honesty, fairness, and responsibility often come into conflict. The challenge is not choosing between “right” and “wrong” but determining which values should take precedence in a given situation. This is where professional experience, mentorship, and continuous ethical reflection become essential tools. Criminal justice professionals must remain open to growth and learning as they navigate the complexities of their roles.
Common Ethical Dilemmas in Criminal Justice
Ethical challenges are a routine aspect of working within the criminal justice system. Professionals across law enforcement, legal advocacy, and corrections frequently encounter situations where they must balance legal obligations, professional ethics, and practical realities. While training and policies provide general guidance, many real-world dilemmas require split-second decision-making and careful ethical reasoning. The following sections examine some of the most common ethical challenges faced by criminal justice professionals.
Ethical Dilemmas in Law Enforcement
Police officers regularly navigate situations that test their judgment and integrity. One of the most complex challenges involves use of force—determining when its application is justified and to what extent. Officers must weigh their responsibility to protect both the public and themselves against the risk of excessive force or unnecessary escalation (Jones & Harris, 2017). The consequences of these decisions can impact not only individuals involved in an incident but also public confidence in law enforcement.
Another dilemma officers face is the challenge of enforcing minor infractions while maintaining positive community relations. Should an officer issue a citation for every minor traffic violation, or should they exercise discretion based on circumstances? While consistency in law enforcement is important, flexibility can also play a role in fostering trust within communities (Taylor & Morgan, 2020).
Officers must also consider their ethical obligations while off duty. When witnessing misconduct or unlawful behavior outside of work hours, are they still professionally bound to intervene? Additionally, law enforcement professionals may face pressure from colleagues regarding internal accountability. Reporting a fellow officer’s potential misconduct can create workplace tension, yet failing to do so may compromise the ethical integrity of the profession (Perez & Singh, 2018).
Ethical Dilemmas in Legal Advocacy
Both prosecutors and defense attorneys face ethical challenges that extend beyond courtroom strategy. One major issue is client confidentiality versus public safety. If a client discloses an intent to commit a future crime, the attorney must determine whether they have an ethical obligation to protect potential victims while also upholding attorney-client privilege (Clark, 2021).
Another dilemma arises when attorneys must balance zealous legal advocacy with broader considerations of justice. A defense attorney’s duty is to represent their client’s best interests, but this responsibility may conflict with personal concerns about fairness. Similarly, prosecutors hold significant authority in plea bargaining, where offering a reduced charge may expedite legal proceedings but could also pressure defendants—some of whom may be innocent—into accepting a deal rather than risk a harsher sentence (Adams, 2019).
A broader challenge in the legal system is resource disparity between prosecutors and public defenders. Public defenders often have larger caseloads and fewer resources compared to state prosecutors. This imbalance can create ethical concerns regarding the quality of legal representation available to individuals who cannot afford private attorneys (Taylor & Morgan, 2020).
Ethical Dilemmas in Corrections
Professionals working in corrections must balance institutional security with their ethical obligations toward incarcerated individuals. One significant challenge is determining the appropriate balance between discipline and rehabilitation. When an inmate violates facility rules, should the response be strictly punitive, or should corrections staff consider rehabilitative strategies that might prevent future infractions? The limited availability of rehabilitative programs complicates this issue (Perez & Singh, 2018).
Another common ethical issue is access to medical care for incarcerated individuals. Corrections officers must ensure that those in custody receive necessary medical treatment while also being mindful that some inmates may attempt to manipulate the system for personal benefit. Balancing security concerns with ethical responsibilities can be difficult in these cases (Clark, 2021).
The use of solitary confinement presents additional ethical considerations. While isolation is sometimes used to manage security risks, extended confinement has been linked to negative psychological effects. Corrections professionals may struggle with the decision to recommend or oppose solitary confinement, particularly when institutional order is at stake (Adams, 2019).
Finally, corrections officers must make decisions regarding inmate re-entry and reintegration. Should minor infractions be overlooked if they facilitate an inmate’s successful transition back into society, or should all rules be uniformly enforced? The answer depends on the facility’s policies and the discretion of corrections staff (Jones & Harris, 2017).
The Complexity of Ethical Decision-Making
Ethical dilemmas in criminal justice are rarely clear-cut. Several factors contribute to the complexity of decision-making in these situations:
- Time Constraints: Law enforcement officers often have only moments to assess situations and take action (Taylor & Morgan, 2020).
- Ambiguous Policies: Some laws and institutional rules leave room for interpretation, requiring professionals to rely on their own judgment (Perez & Singh, 2018).
- Institutional Pressures: Overburdened prosecutors, underfunded public defenders, and correctional staff shortages can complicate ethical decision-making and limit available options (Clark, 2021).
Navigating these dilemmas requires professionals to rely on ethical reasoning, sound judgment, and professional training. By integrating ethical awareness with structured policies and leadership support, criminal justice professionals can make informed decisions that uphold the integrity of the legal system.
Case Studies: Decision Points
Ethical dilemmas in criminal justice often involve complex trade-offs between legal obligations, professional responsibilities, and moral considerations. These decisions can have long-lasting effects on public trust, institutional integrity, and the individuals involved. The following case studies illustrate real-world ethical challenges in law enforcement, prosecution, and corrections, demonstrating the importance of sound judgment and ethical reasoning.
Case Study 1: Ethical Boundaries in a Traffic Stop
A police officer on patrol strongly suspects that a driver is transporting illegal substances but does not have the legal grounds to conduct a search. The officer, believing they are acting in the public interest, fabricates evidence to justify stopping and searching the vehicle. The search ultimately leads to the discovery of illegal drugs.
This situation raises a fundamental ethical dilemma—does achieving a beneficial outcome justify the use of questionable methods? While the officer successfully prevented the distribution of illegal substances, they did so by compromising legal integrity and violating the suspect’s constitutional rights. From a consequentialist perspective, the focus might be on the positive outcome—the removal of harmful substances from circulation (Taylor & Morgan, 2020). However, a deontological perspective would emphasize the importance of adhering to ethical and legal principles, regardless of the outcome (Jones & Harris, 2017). Unlawful actions by law enforcement undermine public trust, create legal liabilities for agencies, and can result in the suppression of evidence, ultimately making future policing efforts more difficult (Clark, 2021).
Case Study 2: Ethical Considerations in Plea Bargains
A prosecutor facing a heavy caseload encounters a case where they believe the defendant is likely innocent but recognizes that securing an acquittal in court would be difficult. To resolve the case quickly and avoid the risk of a trial, the prosecutor offers the defendant a plea deal, which ensures a conviction on a lesser charge but avoids the uncertainties of litigation. The defendant, fearing the consequences of a full trial, accepts the plea agreement.
This scenario presents a conflict between efficiency and justice. Managing large caseloads and ensuring timely resolutions are valid concerns in the legal system (Adams, 2019). However, pressuring a potentially innocent individual into pleading guilty for expediency raises significant ethical concerns. Ethical prosecution requires prioritizing fairness over administrative convenience (Perez & Singh, 2018). Exploring alternatives—such as requesting additional investigative resources or dismissing cases where evidence is insufficient—ensures that justice is pursued without compromising the rights of the accused (Clark, 2021).
Case Study 3: The Use of Solitary Confinement in Corrections
A corrections officer is responsible for managing an inmate who has exhibited aggressive behavior, endangering the safety of staff and fellow inmates. In response, the officer places the inmate in solitary confinement as an immediate measure to restore order. However, the officer is aware of research indicating that extended isolation can have serious psychological consequences.
This case highlights a tension between short-term security and long-term ethical concerns. Ensuring safety within correctional facilities is a critical duty, but excessive reliance on solitary confinement can have lasting detrimental effects on an inmate’s well-being (Taylor & Morgan, 2020). The officer must weigh the need for immediate containment against the potential for long-term harm. Ethical corrections practices encourage exploring alternative solutions, such as increased mental health support, behavior modification programs, or alternative housing arrangements to prevent escalation while minimizing harm (Jones & Harris, 2017).
Beyond Right or Wrong: Lessons from Case Studies
Ethical dilemmas in criminal justice are rarely clear-cut, and decision-makers must navigate multiple factors, including legal standards, professional ethics, and institutional policies. These cases underscore the importance of thoughtful analysis, critical thinking, and adherence to ethical principles. When evaluating such situations, professionals should consider the following:
- Unintended Consequences: Did the decision, even if well-intended, lead to additional harm or long-term complications?
- The Role of Judgment Under Pressure: Did stress, time constraints, or organizational expectations influence the decision, and how can similar pressures be managed more effectively in the future?
- Systemic Challenges: Were resource limitations, outdated policies, or organizational expectations contributing factors, and how can these systemic issues be addressed proactively?
By reflecting on these ethical dilemmas and seeking ways to improve decision-making, criminal justice professionals can ensure that their actions align with the principles of justice, accountability, and public trust.
Strategies for Ethical Resolution
Ethical decision-making is an essential skill for professionals in the criminal justice system, as they routinely navigate complex moral dilemmas. Whether in law enforcement, the courtroom, or corrections, individuals must balance legal obligations, professional ethics, and the needs of the community. Developing structured decision-making strategies and fostering a culture of ethical leadership can help ensure that justice is served with integrity and fairness.
Practical Strategies for Ethical Decision-Making
Criminal justice professionals can adopt specific strategies to strengthen ethical reasoning and improve their ability to navigate challenging situations.
One critical approach is using a structured decision-making framework. A well-defined process—such as identifying the dilemma, gathering relevant facts, evaluating ethical principles, and weighing potential outcomes—helps individuals make deliberate, informed choices rather than reacting impulsively (Jones & Harris, 2017).
Seeking mentorship and peer input is also beneficial. Consulting with a trusted colleague, supervisor, or ethics advisor provides an opportunity to gain different perspectives before making a difficult decision. Experienced professionals can offer guidance based on similar situations they have encountered (Taylor & Morgan, 2020).
An essential part of ethical decision-making is considering multiple perspectives. This requires taking a step back and asking, “How might someone with a different background, role, or experience view this situation?” Officers, attorneys, and corrections professionals can benefit from assessing whether their interpretation aligns with broader public perceptions or whether unintended biases may be influencing their judgment (Clark, 2021).
Avoiding rationalization traps is another key factor. When professionals face pressure to act unethically, it is often easy to justify actions based on good intentions, efficiency, or organizational norms. However, self-reflection and accountability help ensure that ethical principles remain the foundation for decision-making (Perez & Singh, 2018).
Finally, individuals must be prepared to take responsibility for their choices. Ethical decisions are not always easy, and they may involve personal or professional risks. However, professionals who act with integrity and can clearly articulate their reasoning are more likely to earn the respect of their peers and the public (Adams, 2019).
The Role of Leadership in Promoting Ethical Practices
Leaders within criminal justice organizations play a pivotal role in setting the ethical tone for their agencies. Their actions and policies influence whether professionals feel supported in making ethical choices or pressured to compromise their values.
One of the most effective ways leaders can encourage ethical behavior is by leading by example. Supervisors and administrators must demonstrate integrity in their own decisions, reinforcing the expectation that ethical conduct is not optional but a fundamental part of the job (Taylor & Morgan, 2020).
Creating an open and supportive environment is another crucial leadership function. Professionals should feel safe discussing ethical dilemmas, asking for guidance, and reporting concerns without fear of retaliation. An organizational culture that values ethical dialogue fosters better decision-making across all levels (Perez & Singh, 2018).
Leaders should also ensure that performance evaluations and incentives align with ethical priorities. If promotions and commendations are based solely on arrests, convictions, or disciplinary actions, employees may feel incentivized to prioritize outcomes over integrity. Recognizing professionals for ethical problem-solving, fair decision-making, and community engagement reinforces the importance of ethical excellence in the field (Clark, 2021).
Additionally, swift and transparent responses to misconduct send a clear message that unethical behavior is not tolerated. When ethical violations are addressed consistently and fairly, it strengthens internal morale and public trust in the justice system (Adams, 2019).
To reinforce ethical principles, training programs must go beyond procedural rules. Scenario-based training that presents professionals with real-world dilemmas and requires them to apply ethical reasoning enhances their ability to navigate complex situations. These programs should be interactive, discussion-based, and ongoing rather than one-time events (Jones & Harris, 2017).
Building an Ethical Organizational Culture
Beyond individual decision-making and leadership practices, a strong ethical culture within an agency ensures that ethical behavior is not merely encouraged but expected.
A shared understanding of core values, such as fairness, accountability, and justice, provides a foundation for ethical decision-making. When these values are embedded into an organization’s policies, training, and daily operations, professionals have a clear guide for handling difficult situations (Taylor & Morgan, 2020).
Fostering peer accountability also strengthens ethical practices. When colleagues feel comfortable discussing ethical concerns and holding one another accountable, it reduces the likelihood of ethical violations going unchecked. Encouraging open dialogue about ethical dilemmas allows for collaborative problem-solving and continuous improvement (Clark, 2021).
Organizations that focus on learning from mistakes rather than solely punishing infractions create an environment where professionals are more willing to reflect on their decisions. Implementing structured review processes for ethical challenges—where individuals can discuss what went wrong, what was learned, and how future situations can be handled better—promotes ethical growth (Perez & Singh, 2018).
Finally, engaging with the community enhances ethical accountability. Public trust in the justice system is strengthened when agencies actively listen to community concerns, solicit feedback, and demonstrate a commitment to ethical conduct. Transparency and collaboration between criminal justice institutions and the people they serve foster mutual respect and confidence in the system (Adams, 2019).
Evaluating Outcomes and Impact
Ethical decision-making does not end once a choice has been made. For criminal justice professionals, evaluating the consequences of their decisions is essential to improving both individual practices and broader institutional policies. Assessing both the immediate and long-term impacts of ethical choices allows agencies to refine their approaches, address systemic issues, and enhance trust within the communities they serve (Taylor & Morgan, 2020).
Methods for Assessing Ethical Decision-Making
A well-functioning justice system must go beyond simply determining whether a case is solved or closed. Instead, evaluating broader outcomes ensures that ethical principles are upheld over time.
One critical aspect of assessment is looking beyond case resolution. While solving a case may be the primary goal, it is equally important to examine what happens afterward. For example, was the underlying cause of an individual’s behavior addressed, or is there a high likelihood of re-offense? If the criminal justice system does not contribute to rehabilitation or deterrence, its effectiveness in fostering long-term safety is questionable (Clark, 2021).
Data collection and analysis also play a crucial role in evaluating justice system outcomes. Gathering and analyzing information on use-of-force incidents, disciplinary actions, and case resolutions—broken down by relevant factors such as demographics and geographic regions—helps identify patterns and prevent unintended disparities (Perez & Singh, 2018).
Public and internal feedback mechanisms provide additional insights into ethical effectiveness. Examining community complaints and commendations can reveal whether specific officers or departments are successfully maintaining public trust or encountering repeated concerns (Adams, 2019). Additionally, conducting qualitative assessments—such as surveys and focus groups within the community—can offer perspectives on whether people feel they are treated fairly, even if they do not always agree with a particular outcome (Jones & Harris, 2017).
Internal reviews and debriefings are equally essential. After major incidents or ethically complex cases, structured evaluations allow criminal justice professionals to discuss what worked, what could have been handled differently, and how similar situations can be improved in the future. These discussions foster accountability and promote ethical growth within the organization (Clark, 2021).
Finally, tracking officer wellness and ethical resilience is vital to maintaining ethical decision-making in the long term. Research shows that professionals experiencing burnout or decision fatigue are more prone to ethical lapses. Agencies that monitor employee well-being and provide resources for stress management can reduce the risk of impaired judgment and unethical behavior (Taylor & Morgan, 2020).
The Long-Term Impact on Individuals
Each ethical decision made within the justice system can have profound and lasting effects on individuals. For instance, wrongful convictions not only deprive innocent people of their freedom but also cause irreversible psychological, social, and economic harm. Even after exoneration, individuals often struggle to rebuild their lives, making it critical to emphasize fairness and accuracy in every phase of the legal process (Perez & Singh, 2018).
Similarly, how justice is enforced affects public perceptions of law enforcement. A child who witnesses a violent police encounter—even if force was legally justified—may develop a lasting fear or distrust of law enforcement. Over time, this eroded trust makes future investigations more difficult, as individuals may be less likely to cooperate with authorities (Adams, 2019).
Another long-term impact is seen in recidivism rates, which reflect whether a correctional approach is truly effective. The choice between rehabilitation and punishment shapes whether individuals successfully reintegrate into society or return to criminal behavior. Evaluating which strategies contribute to reduced re-offending helps determine the most ethical and effective practices (Taylor & Morgan, 2020).
Not all ethical decisions have negative consequences—positive choices also create ripple effects. For example, when a law enforcement officer takes the time to show empathy, or when a judge implements a fair and rehabilitative sentence, these actions can contribute to long-term positive changes. Understanding these successes helps guide future decision-making (Clark, 2021).
The Long-Term Impact on Communities
Beyond individual consequences, ethical decision-making—or the lack thereof—can shape entire communities.
Public trust and cooperation are deeply affected by ethical lapses. A single high-profile case of misconduct can undo years of community engagement efforts, making it harder for law enforcement to build relationships and prevent crime. Conversely, consistent ethical behavior fosters cooperation, leading to more effective policing and judicial processes (Jones & Harris, 2017).
When communities believe that the justice system is unfair, crime rates may rise as people become less willing to report crimes or assist in investigations. If individuals fear that they will not be treated justly, they are more likely to take matters into their own hands or disengage from law enforcement altogether. Ethical decision-making plays a key role in maintaining the public’s willingness to seek legal remedies rather than alternative solutions outside the system (Perez & Singh, 2018).
Economic factors are also linked to perceptions of fairness in the justice system. When a community is seen as having excessive law enforcement presence or unfair legal practices, it can deter businesses and investors, leading to economic decline. In contrast, communities with strong, ethical institutions tend to attract economic growth and development (Clark, 2021).
Furthermore, patterns of distrust can persist across generations. Children who grow up witnessing negative interactions with law enforcement are more likely to internalize skepticism toward the system. This inherited distrust can lead to cyclical patterns where certain communities remain disconnected from legal institutions, further complicating crime prevention and public safety efforts (Adams, 2019).
Continuous Improvement in Ethical Decision-Making
Ensuring ethical decision-making within criminal justice is not about achieving perfection—it is about committing to ongoing improvement based on real-world outcomes.
A system that prioritizes ethics must also prioritize honest assessments of failure. When mistakes or ethical lapses occur, the focus should be on learning from them rather than concealing them. Acknowledging and addressing errors allows for institutional growth and fosters public trust (Taylor & Morgan, 2020).
External oversight and independent evaluations also contribute to ethical accountability. Independent review boards, research collaborations, and public input all help identify potential blind spots and ensure that ethical concerns are addressed transparently (Jones & Harris, 2017).
Policies and procedures must also evolve as new evidence emerges. If certain practices consistently lead to ethical concerns or disparities, they must be revised to reflect best practices in justice and fairness. Adapting policies based on long-term data and public feedback ensures that ethical decision-making remains a priority (Perez & Singh, 2018).
Finally, it is important to redefine success beyond traditional metrics. While statistics such as arrest numbers and case closures have long been used as indicators of effectiveness, more meaningful measures—such as public trust, fairness in sentencing, and reduced recidivism—may provide a clearer picture of long-term justice system success (Clark, 2021).
Summary and Conclusions
Ethical dilemmas are a fundamental aspect of the decision-making process for criminal justice professionals. This section has outlined a structured approach for analyzing these complex situations while considering the ethical principles that may be in conflict. By examining common challenges in law enforcement, legal practice, and corrections, we have highlighted the moral considerations that professionals in these roles frequently encounter.
Through case studies, we explored how real-world pressures influence ethical decision-making, demonstrating the difficulties of maintaining integrity in high-stakes situations. Additionally, we discussed strategies for ethical resolution, emphasizing the responsibility of leadership in fostering an organizational culture that prioritizes ethical conduct. Finally, we examined the significance of evaluating the outcomes of ethical decisions—not only for individual professional development but also for strengthening the justice system’s commitment to fairness, accountability, and the well-being of the communities it serves (Taylor & Morgan, 2020).
References and Further Reading
- Adams, R. (2019). Judicial perspectives on fairness in sentencing: A systematic analysis. Legal Review, 34(2), 112-128.
- Clark, T. (2021). The psychology of decision-making in law enforcement. Criminal Justice Studies, 45(3), 209-225.
- Jones, P., & Harris, S. (2017). Cognitive processing and ethical decision-making: Implications for criminal justice professionals. Ethics & Justice, 39(1), 87-103.
- Perez, D., & Singh, A. (2018). Community partnerships in law enforcement: Building trust through engagement. Public Safety Quarterly, 22(3), 134-150.
- Taylor, M., & Morgan, R. (2020). Critical thinking in high-stakes decision-making: Applications in criminal justice. Justice Studies, 30(2), 142-159.
Modification History File Created: 05/06/2024 Last Modified: 05/07/2024
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