Edwin Lemert was an American sociologist and criminologist known for developing the concepts of primary and secondary deviance, which explain how societal reactions shape criminal behavior.
Introduction to Edwin Lemert
Edwin M. Lemert (1912–1996) was a key figure in criminology, particularly in the study of deviance and social reaction theory. His most influential work introduced the distinction between primary deviance—minor rule-breaking that does not affect a person’s identity—and secondary deviance, which occurs when an individual internalizes a deviant label and adopts it as part of their self-concept. His contributions laid the foundation for labeling theory, which examines how social labels influence criminal behavior.
Early Life and Academic Background
Lemert earned his Ph.D. in sociology and began his academic career studying social problems, including mental illness, alcoholism, and juvenile delinquency. His research focused on how society reacts to deviant behavior and how these reactions influence individuals. He was particularly interested in how informal and formal societal responses contribute to the development of criminal identities.
Primary and Secondary Deviance
Lemert’s most well-known contribution to criminology is his distinction between primary and secondary deviance, which he first introduced in his 1951 book, Social Pathology.
Primary Deviance
Primary deviance refers to minor rule-breaking or norm violations that do not result in a lasting criminal identity. Everyone engages in some form of deviant behavior at some point, such as minor theft, cheating, or underage drinking. However, if these behaviors are not labeled as significant or are overlooked by society, they do not shape the individual’s self-identity.
For example, a teenager who shoplifts once may not see themselves as a criminal, especially if they are not caught or face no consequences. Society also does not label them as a “criminal,” allowing them to move past the act without internalizing a deviant identity.
Secondary Deviance
Secondary deviance occurs when an individual internalizes a deviant label and begins to see themselves as a criminal or deviant. This often happens after repeated offenses or when formal punishment (such as arrest or imprisonment) reinforces the deviant identity. Society’s reaction—through legal sanctions, stigma, or exclusion—pushes the individual further into criminal behavior.
For instance, if the same teenager from the previous example is caught shoplifting, arrested, and labeled as a “delinquent,” they may begin to see themselves as a thief. If they are treated as a criminal by their family, school, or community, they may engage in more criminal activities, reinforcing the label.
Connection to Labeling Theory
Lemert’s work laid the foundation for labeling theory, which became a dominant perspective in criminology during the 1960s and 1970s. One of the key figures who expanded on Lemert’s ideas was Howard Becker, who argued that deviance is not an objective quality of an act but rather a social construct shaped by the reactions of others. Becker’s famous assertion that “deviance is not the act itself, but the reaction to the act” aligns closely with Lemert’s notion of secondary deviance. When a person is labeled as a criminal or deviant, society begins to treat them differently, reinforcing the label. This shift in social perception affects the individual’s opportunities, relationships, and sense of self, increasing the likelihood that they will continue engaging in deviant behavior. Over time, the individual internalizes this label, which can lead to further alienation from mainstream society and deeper involvement in crime.
Lemert’s theory of secondary deviance also helps explain how formal social control mechanisms, such as law enforcement and the criminal justice system, can contribute to criminal careers. Once someone has been arrested, convicted, or imprisoned, the stigma of a criminal record often limits their ability to find legitimate employment, maintain social relationships, or reintegrate into society. This social exclusion can push individuals toward further crime, as legitimate opportunities become scarce. Additionally, the public nature of criminal labels—such as being placed on offender registries or having court records that are easily accessible—can intensify the effects of labeling, making it difficult for individuals to escape their past mistakes. By highlighting the role of social reactions in shaping criminal behavior, Lemert’s work continues to influence contemporary discussions on rehabilitation, reintegration, and alternative approaches to justice that seek to minimize the harmful effects of labeling.
Implications for Criminal Justice Policy
Lemert’s ideas highlight the long-term consequences of stigmatization in the criminal justice system, emphasizing the need for policies that reduce the risk of secondary deviance. When individuals—especially juveniles—are harshly punished, publicly shamed, or permanently marked as criminals, they may struggle to reintegrate into society. Harsh sentencing, zero-tolerance policies in schools, and public criminal records can all contribute to a cycle where individuals feel trapped by their deviant label. For example, a young offender who is expelled from school or sent to juvenile detention for a minor infraction may find it difficult to return to mainstream education or employment. As opportunities diminish and social exclusion increases, the likelihood of reoffending grows. Lemert’s theory suggests that instead of focusing solely on punitive measures, the criminal justice system should consider approaches that avoid unnecessary labeling and provide opportunities for rehabilitation.
One way to achieve this is through diversion programs, restorative justice initiatives, and rehabilitative sentencing alternatives, which align with Lemert’s insights on preventing secondary deviance. Diversion programs for first-time offenders, such as community service, counseling, or probation instead of incarceration, allow individuals to take responsibility for their actions without being permanently labeled as criminals. Similarly, restorative justice practices—where offenders meet with victims, take accountability, and work toward making amends—can help prevent the social alienation that fuels criminal behavior. By prioritizing reintegration rather than punishment, these approaches reduce the risk of offenders internalizing a deviant identity. Lemert’s work remains highly relevant today, as policymakers, criminologists, and community leaders explore alternatives to traditional punitive justice that emphasize rehabilitation, reintegration, and social support rather than stigma and exclusion.
Conclusion
Edwin Lemert’s contributions to criminology, particularly his theory of primary and secondary deviance, help explain how societal reactions shape criminal behavior. His work laid the groundwork for labeling theory and influenced policies that seek to reduce the negative effects of stigmatization in the criminal justice system. His insights remain relevant today in discussions about crime, punishment, and rehabilitation.
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Last Modified: 03/02/2025