Howard Becker (1928–2023) was a sociologist whose labeling theory transformed criminology by explaining how society’s reaction to deviance shapes criminal identity and behavior.
Howard Becker’s Influence on Criminology
Howard S. Becker was an American sociologist best known for developing labeling theory, a key concept in criminology that examines how individuals become identified as “deviant” and how that label influences their future behavior. His work, particularly in Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (1963), challenged traditional criminological theories that focused on individual pathology or social conditions as the sole causes of crime.
Becker argued that deviance is not an inherent quality of an act but rather a social construct created through interactions between individuals and institutions of power. In other words, crime and deviance exist not because certain behaviors are objectively harmful but because society defines them as such. This perspective shifted criminology from studying why individuals commit crimes to understanding how societal reactions shape criminal identities and careers.
Labeling Theory and Crime
Becker’s labeling theory is based on the idea that deviant behavior is not simply the result of individual actions but is largely influenced by how society perceives and responds to those actions. He emphasized that crime is a socially constructed concept, meaning that what is considered criminal varies across cultures, time periods, and legal systems.
The Social Construction of Deviance
Becker argued that deviance is not an objective fact but a label applied by society. He famously stated:
“Deviance is not a quality of the act the person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an ‘offender.’”
This means that an action is only considered criminal or deviant if powerful groups define it as such. For example:
- Alcohol consumption was illegal during Prohibition in the United States but is now widely accepted.
- Marijuana use remains illegal in some countries but is decriminalized or legalized in others.
- Graffiti is considered a crime in some contexts but is celebrated as street art in others.
This perspective is important in criminology because it explains why laws and social norms change over time and why certain groups are more likely to be labeled as criminals than others.
Primary and Secondary Deviance
Becker built on the work of Edwin Lemert, who distinguished between primary deviance and secondary deviance:
- Primary Deviance – The initial act of rule-breaking that may not result in a criminal identity. Many people engage in minor deviant acts (such as underage drinking or speeding) without being labeled as criminals.
- Secondary Deviance – When an individual is labeled as deviant, they begin to accept and internalize that label, leading to further criminal behavior.
For example, if a teenager is caught shoplifting and is treated as a criminal by authorities, teachers, and family, they may come to see themselves as a “delinquent” and continue engaging in crime. This process shows how societal reactions can push individuals into criminal careers.
The Master Status and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Becker introduced the concept of master status, which refers to a label that dominates a person’s identity. When someone is labeled as a “criminal,” “felon,” or “gang member,” that label can override all other aspects of their identity.
This can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where individuals begin to see themselves as deviant and behave accordingly. For example:
- A young person convicted of a minor offense may struggle to find employment due to their criminal record, leading them to commit further crimes to survive.
- A person labeled as a “gang member” by police may be treated as such by their community, reinforcing their involvement in criminal activities.
This cycle of deviance demonstrates how societal labels can reinforce criminal behavior rather than prevent it.
Moral Entrepreneurs and the Role of Power in Crime
Becker argued that powerful groups in society, which he called moral entrepreneurs, play a crucial role in defining deviance and enforcing laws. These groups include politicians, media figures, religious leaders, and law enforcement agencies who push for certain behaviors to be criminalized based on their own interests.
For example:
- The War on Drugs was driven by political leaders and media campaigns that framed drug users as dangerous criminals, disproportionately affecting marginalized communities.
- Anti-gang policies often rely on broad labels that associate young people of certain racial or ethnic backgrounds with criminal activity, increasing police surveillance in specific neighborhoods.
Becker’s work highlights how laws are not always neutral but are shaped by social, political, and economic forces.
Applications of Becker’s Labeling Theory in Criminology
Becker’s labeling theory has had a profound impact on various aspects of criminology, influencing policies and programs aimed at reducing crime and recidivism.
Criminal Justice and Rehabilitation
One of the key implications of labeling theory is that harsh punishment and stigmatization can increase crime rather than deter it. As a result, many criminal justice reforms now focus on rehabilitation rather than punishment. Examples include:
- Diversion programs that keep first-time offenders out of the criminal justice system to avoid labeling them as criminals.
- Restorative justice practices that focus on repairing harm rather than assigning blame, reducing the long-term impact of criminal labels.
- Ban-the-Box initiatives that prevent employers from asking about criminal records on job applications, reducing barriers to employment for ex-offenders.
Juvenile Justice and Youth Crime
Becker’s theory has been particularly influential in juvenile justice, where labeling young offenders as criminals can lead to lifelong involvement in crime. Programs aimed at preventing this include:
- Community-based alternatives to incarceration that keep youth engaged in school and employment.
- Educational support for at-risk youth to prevent school dropout and subsequent criminal involvement.
- Mentorship and intervention programs that provide positive role models instead of reinforcing criminal identities.
Racial and Social Inequality in Crime and Punishment
Labeling theory also helps explain racial disparities in the criminal justice system. Certain groups, particularly racial minorities and low-income individuals, are more likely to be labeled as criminals due to biased policing, discriminatory laws, and media stereotypes. Examples include:
- Racial profiling leading to higher arrest rates for Black and Latino individuals.
- Disproportionate sentencing for drug-related offenses affecting marginalized communities.
- The criminalization of homelessness and poverty, where individuals are arrested for minor offenses like loitering or panhandling.
By exposing these patterns, Becker’s work has influenced movements for criminal justice reform and racial equality.
Criticisms of Labeling Theory
While Becker’s labeling theory has been widely accepted, it has also faced criticism:
- It does not explain why people commit crime initially – Some criminologists argue that focusing on societal reactions ignores the root causes of criminal behavior, such as poverty, mental illness, or biological factors.
- It underestimates individual agency – Not all individuals accept or internalize criminal labels; some resist them and reform their behavior.
- It does not fully account for serious violent crime – Labeling theory is more useful for understanding petty crimes and delinquency rather than explaining severe offenses like murder or sexual assault.
Despite these criticisms, labeling theory remains one of the most influential perspectives in criminology.
Conclusion
Howard Becker’s labeling theory revolutionized criminology by shifting the focus from individual criminality to the social processes that define and reinforce crime. His work demonstrated how societal reactions, stigmatization, and power structures shape criminal behavior, leading to important reforms in criminal justice and rehabilitation. Today, his ideas continue to influence policies aimed at reducing the negative effects of criminal labels and promoting fairer legal systems.
[ Glossary ]
Last Modified: 02/22/2025