Section 2.2: Elements of Culture

Culture is a complex social construct that is shaped by a variety of elements, including values and beliefs. According to Andersen and Taylor (2019), values are standards that societies use to distinguish between what is good and just. Values are deeply ingrained in cultures and are critical for transmitting beliefs from one generation to the next. Beliefs, on the other hand, are tenets or convictions that people hold to be true.

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While individuals in a society have specific beliefs, they also share collective values. For example, Americans commonly believe in the American Dream, which is the idea that anyone who works hard enough will be successful and wealthy. This belief is rooted in the American value that wealth is good and important.

Exploring the Prism of Cultural Values

Understanding Cultural Values

Picture cultural values as colors that paint the canvas of a society. They’re the invisible forces that shape our beliefs about what’s good, bad, beautiful, or ugly. They’re like signposts guiding the collective behavior and attitudes of a community.

Youth and Beauty: A U.S. Perspective

Imagine a society where youth isn’t just a phase of life; it’s a symbol of allure and purity. In the U.S., youth is often seen as a treasure chest of innocence and sexual appeal. This perspective triggers a race against time, with millions being spent on cosmetics and surgeries to hold on to the fleeting charm of youth (Andersen & Taylor, 2019).

Individualism vs. Collectivism

The U.S. is like a stage where each person is a solo performer, dancing to the tune of independence and self-expression. This individualistic culture puts the spotlight on personal goals and freedoms.

On the other side of the globe, you might find cultures where the dance is more of a group performance. These collectivist societies value the harmony and well-being of the group over individual pursuits (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010).

Reflect 🔍

How do cultural values shape your daily life and choices? Can you think of an example where cultural values from different societies clashed?

Remember, each culture has its unique set of values, like a special recipe that gives it its flavor. While some ingredients might seem strange to an outsider, they all come together to create a rich and diverse global banquet. So, let’s keep our minds open and our forks ready to taste the myriad flavors of the world’s cultural values!

Navigating the Labyrinth: The Struggle with Cultural Values

The Ideal vs. The Real

Cultural values often represent the pinnacle, the ideal that societies aspire to. They are like the North Star, guiding us through the night sky. Yet, reaching that star can be a journey fraught with challenges and contradictions.

Health: A Paradoxical Pursuit

Consider the value of good health—a universal aspiration. It’s like aiming for a mountain peak, visible yet daunting. Quitting smoking embodies this struggle. It’s an uphill battle against addiction, societal norms, or even personal stress. The journey to health is often a winding path rather than a straightforward climb.

The Complex Dance of Marital Monogamy

Marital fidelity, like a sacred vow, is treasured in many cultures. However, the reality of infidelity, like an uninvited guest, often crashes this ideal party. This dichotomy between valued monogamy and practiced infidelity is akin to a dance where steps are often mismatched.

Equality: An Unfinished Symphony

The U.S. values cultural diversity and equal opportunities. Yet, this melody often hits a discordant note when you see a monochromatic representation in its highest political offices. It’s like an orchestra where some instruments are more dominant while others wait for their turn.

Duality of Culture: The Ideal and The Real

Conceptualizing Culture: Aspirations and Actualities

Culture is like a canvas, painted with the hues of values, norms, and practices. Ideal culture is akin to an artist’s envisioned masterpiece, where every stroke and color aligns with societal aspirations. It’s the utopia, the perfect picture that societies aim for. Imagine a world with no road accidents, no crime, no poverty, no racial tensions. That’s the landscape of the ideal culture.

Real culture, on the other hand, is the painting as it truly is, with its smudges, uneven strokes, and imperfect hues. It’s the reality, sometimes messy and contradictory, that exists despite the lofty ideals. It’s the world as we experience it, with all its imperfections—traffic accidents, crimes, societal injustices.

Case in Point: The American Teenager

Consider the American teenager, standing at the crossroads of these two cultures. They are encouraged to value celibacy—an ideal, a guiding star. However, the reality, the terrain they navigate, is marked by the prevalence of unplanned teenage pregnancies. This divergence is a testament to the complexity of human behavior, where values do not always dictate actions.

Reflect 🔍

Can you think of examples from your own culture where there’s a stark difference between the ideal and the real? Why do you think such disparities exist between ideal culture and real culture?

Remember, the tension between ideal culture and real culture is an inherent part of human societies. It’s a reminder of our aspirations and our human fallibilities. It’s in navigating this gap that societies evolve and hopefully inch closer to their ideals.

Cultural Values and Social Control: The Carrot and the Stick

Societal Blueprint: Rewards and Sanctions

Societies function like intricate machines, with cultural values serving as the blueprint. To ensure these values are not just theoretical ideals but are actively embraced, societies employ a mix of rewards, sanctions, and punishments—tools in the toolkit of social control.

Rewards: These are the carrots dangled before individuals to encourage adherence to societal norms. They come in various forms—a smile and a ‘thank you’ for an act of kindness, a bonus for exceptional work performance. These rewards are affirmations, societal nods of approval for upholding its values.

Sanctions: These are the mechanisms through which society expresses its approval or disapproval. A sanction can be as simple as a nod of approval or as complex as a legal penalty. They are the signposts that guide behavior, indicating what is acceptable and what is not.

Conformity and Control: The Invisible Hand

Social control is like the invisible hand that gently (or sometimes firmly) guides individuals towards conformity. It operates subtly, often without overt force. People, anticipating positive sanctions, might strive for good grades or work performance. The beauty of this system is that it works even in the absence of authority figures. It’s cost-effective, relying more on societal expectations than on policing.

Reflect 🔍

Can you recall a time when you conformed to societal norms due to the anticipation of rewards or fear of sanctions?

In this dance of societal norms and individual behaviors, rewards and sanctions play pivotal roles. They are the subtle forces that shape actions and reinforce cultural values. Understanding this dynamic helps to appreciate how societies maintain order and encourage conformity, and also prompts reflections on its implications for individual freedom and societal flexibility.

Defying Cultural Values: The Price of Non-Conformity

Cultural Clash: Individualism vs Collectivism

In the cultural tapestry of the world, values vary greatly. In the U.S., individualism is celebrated, fostering a spirit of independence and self-reliance. By contrast, many other societies champion collectivism, where the welfare of the group takes precedence over individual desires. These contrasting values shape not just societal norms but also the consequences for those who dare to defy them.

Punishment and Social Backlash: The price of defying cultural values can be steep. In individualistic societies, those who lean too heavily on collective support may be seen as dependent or weak. In collectivist societies, putting personal needs above the group can lead to ostracism or social censure. The punishments may not always be legal or formal but can manifest in social exclusion, disapproval, or loss of respect.

Behavioral Implications: Navigating Cultural Expectations

Individual behaviors are often a reflection of the dominant cultural values. In individualistic cultures, personal achievements and autonomy are highly valued. In collectivist cultures, harmony, group consensus, and familial obligations take precedence. Navigating these expectations requires a nuanced understanding of the underlying cultural norms.

Navigating the Maze of Cultural Values

Ideal vs Reality: The Dichotomy of Cultural Expectations

Living up to cultural values often presents a complex challenge, characterized by the tension between societal ideals and individual realities. While society may extol certain virtues and principles, the lived experiences of individuals often paint a different picture.

Case in Point: Monogamy and Equal Opportunities

• The Monogamy Paradox: Societies frequently uphold monogamous relationships as the gold standard, yet infidelity is a prevalent issue. This dichotomy between the ideal of monogamy and the reality of marital fidelity reflects the challenge individuals face in aligning personal behaviors with societal expectations.
• The Equality Conundrum: Similarly, although American culture strongly emphasizes equal opportunities for all, the stark underrepresentation of diverse groups in political leadership underscores the gap between cultural ideals and real-world practices.

The Struggle of Alignment: Personal Desires vs Societal Norms

The struggle to live up to cultural values often involves navigating the intricacies of personal desires and societal norms. Balancing these two can be akin to walking a tightrope, where any misstep might lead to social censure or internal conflict.

Informal Norms, Mores, and Folkways

Navigating Cultural Currents

In the vast ocean of culture, informal norms act like currents, guiding the everyday behaviors and interactions within different societies. These norms, often unwritten, are absorbed through observation and socialization, shaping the social fabric.

Mores vs. Folkways: A Critical Distinction

• Mores: These norms are the moral anchors of a culture, representing the collective ethical compass. Mores dictate what is considered profoundly right or wrong within a society. Violating mores can lead to severe consequences, and they are often codified into laws or formal norms.
• Folkways: In contrast, folkways are the everyday norms that dictate appropriate behavior without moral judgment. They are the subtleties of daily interactions and routines, guiding social conduct in more mundane aspects of life.

Illustration: The Restaurant Scenario

• Informal Norms at Play: Consider a fast-food restaurant in the United States. Without any written rules, customers inherently know to line up, order, eat, and leave without joining strangers at a table, singing loudly, or napping in a booth. These are informal norms at work, guiding behavior subtly yet effectively.

The Understated Power of Folkways

• Everyday Guidance: Folkways might seem trivial, but they hold immense power in dictating societal interactions. They govern greetings, dress codes for events, and interactions with strangers. Folkways are the silent choreographers of daily life, orchestrating the social dance with unwritten cues.

Norms: The Social Glue

In summary, norms, both formal and informal, are the societal glue. They dictate conduct based on what a culture deems good, right, and important.

• Mores: The moral pillars, violations of which carry serious repercussions.
• Folkways: The subtle guides for everyday behavior, steering social interactions without moral implications.

Understanding and adapting to these norms is crucial for seamless navigation and integration within any social landscape. They are the silent yet potent forces that shape societal dynamics and individual behaviors.

Reflect 🔍

How do the consequences of violating mores differ from those of folkways in various cultures? Can the line between mores and folkways shift over time as societies evolve?

Recognizing the nuanced roles of mores and folkways in shaping cultural conduct can deepen our comprehension of social dynamics and aid in fostering more harmonious and respectful intercultural relations.

Symbols and Language in Culture

The Role of Symbols in Society

• Conveying Meaning: Symbols serve as the building blocks of culture, providing a means to interpret and understand the world. Ranging from gestures to objects, they help shape societal structure and foster shared understanding.
• Functional and Symbolic Value: Symbols can be practical, like traffic signs guiding movement, or carry symbolic weight, such as a police officer’s uniform representing authority (Sullivan 2019).

Unconventional Use and Impact of Symbols

• Challenging Norms: Symbols often go unnoticed until utilized unconventionally. A stop sign on a corporate door or a military jacket at an anti-war protest can make powerful political statements.
• Symbolic Destruction: Destroying symbols, like burning effigies, can express dissent or dissatisfaction, symbolizing societal or political unrest (Sullivan 2019).

Language: A Symbolic System

• Communication Medium: Language, a system of verbal and written symbols, is pivotal in communication and cultural transmission. It adapts to societal changes, incorporating new terms as societies evolve (Sullivan 2019).
• Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: This hypothesis posits that language shapes thought and perception. Each language frames the world uniquely, influencing how its speakers perceive reality (Swoyer 2003).

Nonverbal Communication: Beyond Words

• Universal Expressions: Some nonverbal cues, like smiles or tears, are almost universally understood, transcending linguistic barriers.
• Cultural Variations: Nonverbal communication can vary significantly across cultures. A gesture like a thumbs-up may be positive in one culture but offensive in another (Passero, 2002).

Significance of Symbols in Culture

Symbols, encompassing language and nonverbal cues, are vital in shaping human understanding and interactions. They contribute to the transmission and evolution of culture, offering a lens through which societies can be understood. Comprehending symbols and their cultural contexts is key to effective communication and cultural competence.

Reflect 🔍

How do symbols reinforce or challenge cultural norms and values? In what ways might language shape or limit our understanding of concepts not present in our linguistic framework?

Exploring the intricate roles of symbols and language in culture provides insights into how societies construct meanings and navigate the complexities of human interactions. Understanding these symbolic nuances can pave the way for more nuanced and empathetic cross-cultural engagements.

Summary

Culture is shaped by values and beliefs that are passed down from generation to generation. These values influence what societies consider good or bad, and beautiful or ugly. Ideal culture represents society’s goals, while real culture shows how society actually works. Societies use rewards and punishments to encourage following cultural values, which is important for understanding different cultures and promoting diversity and inclusion.

Norms are rules that guide how people behave. Folkways are everyday habits learned by watching others, while mores are serious moral rules, breaking which can lead to serious consequences. Following these norms helps people get along in society.

Symbols like gestures, signs, and words are crucial in understanding and communicating in society. They can be practical or carry deeper meanings. Language and body language are also forms of symbols. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that language influences how we think. Understanding symbols, including nonverbal communication like body language, is key for effective communication and understanding different cultures.

Word Count:  2727

Key Terms

Beliefs, Collectivism, Cultural Values, Edward Sapir, Folkways, Geert Hofstede, Ideal Culture, Individualism, Language, Mores, Norms, Real Culture, Sanctions, Social Control, Society, Symbols, Values, Walter Taylor

References and Further Reading 

• Bobo, L. D., & Fox, C. (2003). Race, racism, and discrimination: Bridging problems, methods, and theory in social psychological research. Social Psychology Quarterly, 66(4), 319–332. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519832
• Chambliss, W. J. (2011). Corrections: A sociological perspective (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.
• Henslin, J. M. (2021). Essentials of sociology: A down-to-earth approach (14th ed.). Pearson.
• Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Sage Publications.
• Kohn, M. L. (1993). Reward systems and ideology in organizations: An overview of issues and a research agenda. In M. S. Mizruchi & M. Schwartz (Eds.), Intercorporate relations: The structural analysis of business (pp. 181–201). Cambridge University Press.
• Mark, K. P., Janssen, E., & Milhausen, R. R. (2011). Infidelity in heterosexual couples: demographic, interpersonal, and personality-related predictors of extradyadic sex. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(5), 971–982. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-011-9766-z
• Barnes, R. A. (2015). Language, culture, and society: An introduction to linguistic anthropology. Routledge.
• Benjamin, L. T. (2014). A brief history of modern psychology. John Wiley & Sons.
• Oxford English Dictionary Online. (2011). Oxford University Press. 
• Passero, K. (2002). The thumbs-up gesture: Its meaning and history. Emme Interactive. 
• Sumner, W. G. (1906). Folkways: A study of the sociological importance of usages, manners, customs, mores, and morals. Ginn and Company.
• Swoyer, C. (2003). The linguistic relativity hypothesis. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2003 ed.). Stanford University. 
• Westcott, C. (2008). Peace sign: The true story behind one of the most recognizable symbols in the world. Sterling.

Modification History

File Created:  05/07/2023

Last Modified:  10/27/2023

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