Section 5.3: Theoretical Perspectives of Deviance

Imagine you’re walking in a quiet neighborhood and suddenly, you see someone sprinting past you, screaming at the top of their lungs. That’s unusual, right? In sociology, we call actions or behaviors that seem ‘out of the ordinary’ deviance. Deviance isn’t just about breaking laws; it’s about doing anything that goes against what most people expect. This can include wearing pajamas to a formal meeting or even being extremely talented or intelligent. Anything that makes you go, “Huh, that’s different!” can be considered deviant.

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Why Study Deviance?

Studying deviance is like being a detective. It helps us understand why people act the way they do and how society decides what’s ‘normal’ and what’s not. When we understand deviance, we understand more about ourselves and the world around us.

The Theories Behind Deviance

To really get why people do things that are considered ‘weird’ or ‘wrong,’ sociologists have come up with some theories. Think of these theories as different pairs of glasses. Each pair lets you see the world in a unique way.

• Structural-Functionalism: This theory is like looking at society as a machine. Every part has a job. Deviance, then, is like a cog that’s not fitting right. It can actually help by showing what needs to change in society.
• Conflict Theory: Here, society is seen as a competition. Different groups have different amounts of power and resources. Deviance happens when there’s inequality and people are fighting for more power or resources.
• Symbolic Interactionism: This one is all about the small interactions we have every day. It suggests that we learn to be deviant through the people we hang out with and the meanings we give to things.
• Labeling Theory: Ever been called something like ‘the smart kid’ or ‘the troublemaker’? This theory focuses on how those labels can affect us and even lead us to act in certain ways.

Reflect 🔍

Think about the last time you noticed someone doing something ‘deviant.’ What was it, and how did you and others around you react? Do you think one of the theories above can help explain why it happened?

Structural-Functionalism

What is Structural-Functionalism?

Imagine society as a giant machine. Every part, from the laws we follow to the jobs we do, works together to keep things running smoothly. This is the basic idea behind structural-functionalism. It’s like looking at the world through blueprints, seeing how everything fits together. In this view, even the unexpected or unusual behaviors, the deviance, have a role to play.

The Role of Deviance

You might wonder, how can breaking rules be good for society? Well, according to structural-functionalism, when someone does something different, it’s like the machine is getting a signal that something might need fixing. This can lead to positive changes. For example, imagine if no one ever challenged unfair laws – we’d never improve!

Merton’s Strain Theory: A Closer Look

Robert Merton, a big name in this theory, suggested something interesting with his strain theory. He said people are like runners in a race. Everyone is told to run towards success, but not everyone has good shoes (or any shoes!). So, some might decide to take a shortcut through the grass. Here, the ‘race’ is society’s goals, and the ‘shortcut’ is deviant behavior. It’s not always about being rebellious; sometimes, it’s about trying to succeed when the odds are stacked against you.

Critiques and Considerations

No theory is perfect. Some people argue that structural-functionalism focuses too much on the positives and forgets about the real harm that deviant behavior can cause. Others say it doesn’t pay enough attention to who holds power in society and how that affects the rules we’re all expected to follow.

By understanding structural-functionalism, you’re not just learning about a theory; you’re gaining a new lens to view society. It’s about seeing beyond the surface, understanding the ‘why’ behind the ‘what,’ and appreciating the complex interplay of forces that shape our world.

Reflect 🔍

Consider a time when someone you know did something unexpected or against the rules. Were there any hidden ‘functions’ or reasons behind their behavior? Could Merton’s theory explain it, or is there more to the story?

Overview of Conflict Theory

What is Conflict Theory?

Imagine society as a tug-of-war game, where different groups are pulling on a rope, trying to gain more control and resources. This is the essence of conflict theory. It suggests that society isn’t a well-oiled machine but rather a battleground of competing interests. In this arena, deviance isn’t just about breaking rules; it’s about who makes the rules and who benefits from them.

Deviance and Power Struggles

Under conflict theory, the rules about what’s considered ‘deviant’ are set by those in power to keep their position secure. Think about it: who decides what’s normal and what’s not? Often, it’s the people with the most resources and influence. So, when someone challenges these norms, they’re not just being rebellious; they’re shaking the very foundations of power in society.

Rebellion as Resistance

Sometimes, breaking the rules is more than just acting out. For many, it’s a form of protest. When marginalized groups engage in deviant behavior, they might be trying to send a message, demanding change, and fighting against an unfair system. This view turns the idea of deviance on its head: instead of being a problem, it can be a powerful tool for social change.

The Debate Around Conflict Theory

Not everyone agrees with conflict theory. Some say it’s too focused on the big picture and doesn’t consider how individuals can make their own choices. Others think it’s too negative and doesn’t recognize the stability and cooperation that exist in society.

By exploring conflict theory, you’re diving into a world where power, inequality, and resistance shape every aspect of our lives. It’s not just about understanding why people break rules; it’s about questioning the rules themselves and seeing the bigger picture of how society operates. So, the next time you hear about someone going against the grain, remember: there’s often more to the story than meets the eye.

Reflect 🔍

Think of a rule or norm in your community or society that seems unfair. How might conflict theory explain why this rule exists and who it benefits? Have you ever seen someone challenge this rule, and if so, what happened?

Overview of Symbolic Interactionism

What is Symbolic Interactionism?

Picture a world where every action, word, and symbol is like a piece of a puzzle, coming together to form our understanding of reality. That’s symbolic interactionism. It’s a theory that focuses on the small-scale, everyday interactions between people and how these interactions create the social world. In this view, deviance isn’t just about breaking rules; it’s about what those actions mean to us and others.

The Power of Labels and Meanings

According to symbolic interactionists, when someone is labeled ‘deviant,’ it’s not just a tag; it’s a powerful force that can shape their identity. Imagine being called the ‘troublemaker’ in school. Over time, you might start to see yourself that way, and it could influence your actions. This is what’s known as a self-fulfilling prophecy. The label becomes a part of who you are, and you might act accordingly, even if you didn’t initially fit that label.

Understanding Deviance as a Social Construction

Symbolic interactionism teaches us that deviance isn’t written in stone. What’s considered ‘deviant’ in one society might be totally normal in another. It’s all about context and interpretation. By studying the symbols and meanings in different societies, we can understand why certain behaviors are seen as deviant and how people react to them.

Critiques and Considerations

While symbolic interactionism offers a detailed look at personal experiences and meanings, some argue that it misses the bigger picture. Critics say it focuses too much on individual interactions and doesn’t account for larger social structures and forces that also shape behavior.

Exploring symbolic interactionism opens up a new way of seeing the world. It’s about understanding the stories behind the labels, the meanings behind the actions, and the ongoing process of social construction that shapes our reality. So next time you witness or hear about deviant behavior, remember: there’s a deeper layer of meaning waiting to be uncovered.

Reflect 🔍

Think about a time when you or someone you know was labeled in a certain way (like ‘smart,’ ‘clumsy,’ or ‘rebellious’). How did that label affect behavior and self-perception? Can you see how symbolic interactionism might explain this situation?

Overview of Labeling Theory

What is Labeling Theory?

Imagine if everyone started calling you a ‘genius.’ Over time, you might start to take on that identity, striving to live up to the label. Now, flip that scenario. What if the label was something negative? This is the core of labeling theory. It’s a concept that says the labels we get, especially when it comes to deviance, can shape our lives in profound ways. It’s not just about what you do; it’s about how society responds to what you do.

Primary vs. Secondary Deviance

Labeling theory distinguishes between two types of deviance. Primary deviance is the initial act, the thing you do that might be considered ‘weird’ or ‘wrong.’ But the real focus is on secondary deviance. This is what happens after you’re labeled. If society calls you a ‘troublemaker,’ you might start to act the part, not because you were always one, but because that’s what’s expected of you now.

The Stigma of Labels

Once a label sticks, it can be hard to shake. People might start to see you only as that label, ignoring all the other parts of who you are. This can lead to stigmatization and marginalization, pushing you further to the edges of society. It’s a vicious cycle: the more you’re seen as ‘deviant,’ the harder it becomes to change that perception.

Institutions and Labeling

Think about schools, courts, or even the media. These institutions play a big role in the labeling process. If a school suspends a student for acting out, that student might be labeled as a ‘problem child.’ If the media portrays someone as a ‘criminal,’ it can be tough for them to find a job or housing. These labels aren’t just words; they’re powerful forces that can close doors and limit opportunities.

Critiques and Considerations

Labeling theory has its critics. Some argue that it doesn’t explain why people commit deviant acts in the first place. Others say it overlooks the broader social and economic conditions that lead to deviance. Despite these critiques, it offers valuable insights into the social processes that shape our lives and identities.

By understanding labeling theory, you’re gaining a deeper appreciation for the power of words and perceptions. It’s a reminder that sometimes, the labels we’re given can become self-fulfilling prophecies, shaping our path in ways we might not expect. So, the next time you hear someone being labeled, think about the impact that might have, and remember the complex interplay between actions, reactions, and identities.

Reflect 🔍

Consider a label you’ve been given in your life. How has it affected you? Do you think labeling theory can explain some of your experiences or reactions?

Overview of Comparative Analysis and Integration

The Puzzle of Deviance

Think of understanding deviance like assembling a puzzle. Each theoretical perspective—structural-functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism, and labeling theory—is a piece of the puzzle. Each piece offers unique insights, but it’s only when we put them together that we see the full picture.

Structural-Functionalism: The Blueprint

This perspective gives us the blueprint, showing how deviance plays a role in maintaining society’s stability. It’s like the edges of the puzzle, framing our understanding. However, it’s criticized for overlooking the negative impacts of deviance and not considering the power dynamics at play.

Conflict Theory: The Power Struggle

Conflict theory adds the layer of power struggles and inequality. It shows us how those in power define deviance to maintain control. This piece highlights the ongoing tug-of-war in society but is critiqued for focusing too much on broad structures and not enough on individual actions.

Symbolic Interactionism: The Personal Touch

Symbolic interactionism zooms in on the daily interactions and meanings that shape our understanding of deviance. It adds depth and color to our puzzle, emphasizing the role of perception. However, it’s sometimes seen as too micro-focused, missing the larger societal forces at play.

Labeling Theory: The Stigma Factor

Labeling theory focuses on the consequences of being labeled deviant. It’s the piece that shows how these labels can alter paths and perpetuate deviance. While it offers a deep dive into the impact of societal reactions, it’s criticized for not addressing the initial causes of deviance.

Integrating the Perspectives

To truly understand deviance, we need to integrate these perspectives. Each has its strengths and weaknesses, but together, they offer a more nuanced view. Structural-functionalism and conflict theory provide the macro view—society’s structure and power dynamics. At the same time, symbolic interactionism and labeling theory offer the micro view—individual experiences and societal reactions.

By comparing and integrating these theories, we’re not just learning about deviance; we’re exploring the complex tapestry of society. Each perspective adds a layer of understanding, and when combined, they help us appreciate the intricate dance between individual actions, societal reactions, and the structures that shape our world. So, as you continue to ponder the puzzles of society, remember the value of looking through multiple lenses and weaving together the insights they provide.

Reflect 🔍

Think about a social issue or form of deviance you’re familiar with. How might each theoretical perspective explain this issue? Can you see how integrating these views provides a more comprehensive understanding?

Structural-Functionalism: Deep Dive

The Clockwork of Society

Picture society as a grand clock, with each gear and spring representing different parts like families, governments, and schools. This is the world of structural-functionalism, where every piece works together to keep the clock ticking smoothly. In this intricate setup, deviance is not just a misstep; it’s a part of the system, sometimes even necessary to keep the clock running.

Deviance: A Necessary Function?

Yes, you read that right! Deviance, in the eyes of structural-functionalists, can actually be beneficial. It’s like the alarm on the clock – it might startle you, but it’s there to signal something important. Deviance can challenge the status quo, prompting society to adapt and evolve. Think of it as society’s way of testing its boundaries, identifying what works and what doesn’t.

Catalyst for Change and Innovation

Consider significant social movements, like the fight for civil rights. These were acts of deviance, going against the norms of the time. But they were crucial in pushing society forward, leading to greater equality and justice. In this sense, deviance can be the spark that lights the fire of progress, encouraging society to reconsider and revise outdated norms and values.

Reinforcing Social Boundaries

Deviance also plays a role in defining what’s ‘normal.’ When a behavior is labeled as deviant, it reinforces the boundaries of acceptable conduct. This helps create a sense of unity and shared values among society’s members. It’s like drawing lines on the clock face; it helps everyone understand the limits and work within them.

Critiques and Considerations

While structural-functionalism offers valuable insights, it’s not without its critics. Some argue that it glosses over the negative impacts of deviance and ignores the power imbalances that often drive it. For example, it might overlook how certain ‘deviant’ behaviors are responses to systemic inequality. Additionally, critics say it overemphasizes social stability and downplays the importance of individual agency and societal change.

In this deep dive into structural-functionalism, we’ve seen how this perspective views society as a complex, interconnected system where even deviance has a role to play. It’s a reminder that sometimes, what seems like a disruption might actually be a crucial part of the system’s growth and evolution. So, as you ponder the norms and rules around you, remember the intricate clockwork of society and the potential functions of every gear, even the ones that seem to turn the wrong way.

Reflect 🔍

Think about a rule or norm in your community. How might structural-functionalism explain the function of this rule? Can you identify any ‘deviant’ behaviors that have challenged or changed this rule over time?

Conflict Theory: A Deep Dive

The Battlefield of Society

Welcome to the intense world of conflict theory, where society isn’t a harmonious system but a battlefield of competing interests and struggles. This perspective dives deep into the roots of social inequality and power dynamics, offering a compelling narrative on the nature and implications of deviance.

Deviance: A Product of Inequality

In the eyes of conflict theorists, deviance isn’t just a personal choice; it’s a product of the deep-seated conflicts and inequalities that riddle society. According to this view, the lines between ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ are often drawn by those in power to maintain their position and suppress challenges to the status quo. The definition of what’s deviant, then, is heavily influenced by these power dynamics.

The Dominant Class and Deviance

Imagine a game where the rules are made by a select few players. Similarly, in society, the dominant class—those with the most wealth, power, and resources—often sets the standards for what’s considered normal and deviant. This power allows them to label behaviors that threaten their position as ‘deviant’ and use this label as a tool to control and marginalize others. This is where the criminal justice system often comes into play, acting as a mechanism to enforce the norms set by the powerful.

Resistance and Rebellion

But conflict theory isn’t just about oppression; it’s also about resistance. For many, engaging in deviance is a form of protest, a way to challenge unjust norms and fight for change. The Civil Rights Movement, with its sit-ins and marches, is a prime example. These ‘deviant’ acts were crucial in pushing society toward greater equality and justice, showing that deviance can be a powerful force for social transformation.

Critiques and Considerations

While conflict theory offers profound insights, it’s not without its critics. Some argue that it oversimplifies society by focusing too much on conflict and neglecting the role of consensus and cooperation. Others say it doesn’t account enough for individual choices and the complex factors that contribute to deviance beyond just power and inequality.

As we delve into conflict theory, we see a world where deviance is not just an act of breaking rules but a reflection of the ongoing power struggles within society. It’s a reminder that behind every label of ‘deviance,’ there’s a story of conflict, resistance, and the quest for power. So, as you ponder the nature of deviance, consider not just the act itself but the broader social context that defines and responds to it.

Reflect 🔍

Think of a societal norm or law you’re familiar with. How might conflict theory explain its existence and enforcement? Can you identify any acts of deviance that have challenged this norm, and what were the consequences?

Understanding Symbolic Interactionism

Dive into Symbolic Interactionism

Let’s jump into the fascinating world of symbolic interactionism. Imagine society as a big, complex puzzle, and every time we talk, gesture, or interact, we’re putting pieces of that puzzle together. This approach zooms in on the small, everyday interactions that shape how we understand and experience things that are outside the norm, like deviance.

What is Deviance, Really?

So, what’s this thing called ‘deviance’? It’s not as straightforward as it seems. Symbolic interactionism shows us that being labeled as ‘different’ or ‘outside the norm’ isn’t set in stone. What’s seen as odd or unacceptable in one place might be totally fine in another. It’s not just about what you do, but how people interpret and react to what you do.

The Impact of Labels

Think about it like getting a nickname that sticks. If people start seeing you a certain way because of a label, you might begin to see yourself that way, too, even if it’s not who you really are. For example, if someone is labeled as ‘troublesome,’ they might start acting the part, not because they are, but because that’s what’s expected. It’s a powerful effect that can shape our actions and self-view.

The Story of Graffiti: Art or Vandalism?

Take graffiti, for instance. Whether it’s seen as cool art or plain old vandalism isn’t just about the painting on the wall. It’s about how people—like police, the community, and other artists—see and react to it. Every reaction is like a brush stroke, painting how we perceive and label the act.

Looking at the Bigger Picture

While symbolic interactionism gives us a close-up view of how we make sense of the world, it’s not perfect. Some critics say it misses the forest for the trees, focusing so much on tiny interactions that it overlooks the bigger societal structures and forces. It might also not fully capture how big institutions influence what’s considered ‘normal’ or ‘deviant.’

The Big Takeaway

Symbolic interactionism pulls us into the day-to-day interactions and meanings that build our social world. It reminds us that what’s seen as ‘different’ or ‘outside the norm’ is always changing, shaped by the ongoing conversation of society. As we wade through society’s complexities, understanding how interpretation and interaction define ‘deviance’ gives us a more complete and compassionate view of each other.

Reflect 🔍

Consider a behavior or act you’ve witnessed that was labeled as deviant. How did the interactions and interpretations of those around influence this label? Can you see how different perspectives might change the meaning attached to this behavior?

Exploring Labeling Theory

Introducing Labeling Theory

Dive into labeling theory, a fascinating approach that shifts the spotlight from ‘deviant’ actions to how society reacts to and labels these actions. It’s not just about what you do; it’s about how people respond and what that means for your future.

The Social Construction of Deviance

Labeling theory helps us see deviance as something society creates, not something that’s naturally there. It’s all about the labels we give to people and actions. These labels aren’t just words; they’re powerful tools that can change how someone sees themselves and how they fit into the world.

The Stages of Deviance: Primary and Secondary

Let’s break it down further. Imagine you did something against the rules, but you don’t see yourself as a ‘bad’ person. That’s primary deviance. But when others start calling you out and labeling you based on that one action, things change. You might start to act the way they expect you to, even if it’s not who you really are. That’s secondary deviance, and it can trap people in a cycle of behavior they might not have continued otherwise.

The Ripple Effect of Labels

Think about a student caught shoplifting. Maybe it was a one-time thing, but once they’re labeled a ‘thief’, the game changes. This label can stick like glue, affecting their self-esteem, relationships, and even pushing them to steal again, just because that’s what everyone now expects.

The Power Behind the Label

Labels aren’t just random; they reflect our society’s norms, values, and even the power dynamics at play. Who gets to decide what’s ‘deviant’ anyway? Often, it’s those with more power, and their decisions can keep less powerful people at the edges of society.

The Flip Side: Critiques of Labeling Theory

While labeling theory opens our eyes to the power of societal reaction, it’s not perfect. Some argue it’s too focused on the reaction part and doesn’t dig enough into why people do what they do in the first place. Others say it doesn’t fully capture the varied experiences of different groups or the bigger societal forces at work.

Wrapping It Up: The Big Picture

Labeling theory gives us a compelling way to look at ‘deviance.’ It reminds us that labels are powerful and can shape someone’s path in life. By understanding this, we can start to see the bigger dance between society’s reactions, personal identity, and behavior. But remember, it’s just one piece of the puzzle. To really understand ‘deviance,’ we need to look at all angles, including the broader structures that influence us all.

🔍  Reflect

Have you ever been labeled in a way that changed how you see yourself or how you act? How do labels in your community or school shape people’s behavior and opportunities?

Theories of Deviance: A Comparative Analysis

Welcome to Comparative Analysis and Integration

Jump into the world of comparative analysis and integration, where we lay out the puzzle pieces of different theories to see the bigger picture of deviance. Here, we’ll weigh the pros and cons of structural-functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism, and labeling theory to get a deeper understanding of what ‘deviance’ really means.

Strengths of Each Perspective

Each theory has its superpower. Structural-functionalism shows us how deviance might actually help keep society running smoothly. Conflict theory shines a light on how power and inequality play into what’s considered ‘deviant’. Symbolic interactionism zooms in on the everyday interactions and meanings that shape our understanding of deviance. And labeling theory? It focuses on the big impact of being labeled ‘deviant’ and how that changes people.

Where They Fall Short

But no theory is perfect. Structural-functionalism might be too optimistic, ignoring the real harm of deviant behavior. Conflict theory could overlook the individual’s role, focusing too much on the bigger societal structures. Symbolic interactionism might miss the forest for the trees, not paying enough attention to those larger structures. Labeling theory could get so caught up in the labels that it forgets to ask why the behavior happened in the first place.

They’re Better Together

Despite their differences, these theories aren’t enemies. They’re more like pieces of a puzzle that, when put together, give us a fuller picture. Conflict theory and labeling theory both get into the nitty-gritty of power and societal reactions. Symbolic interactionism and labeling theory take us into the world of personal identity and the impact of labels. Structural functionalism and conflict theory offer two sides of the same coin: how deviance functions in society, for better or worse.

Why We Need All Perspectives

No single theory can explain everything about deviance. It’s a complex beast. But by mixing and matching these perspectives, we start to see a more nuanced picture. Structural-functionalism gives us the functions of deviance, conflict theory points out the power struggles, symbolic interactionism shows us the personal meanings, and labeling theory reveals the aftermath of societal reactions.

Synthesizing for a Holistic View

To really understand deviance, we need to blend these theories together. It’s like making a smoothie from different fruits – each one adds a unique flavor, but together, they create something new and more complex. By looking at how societal structures, interactions, power, and labeling intertwine, we get a richer, more layered understanding of deviance.

By comparing and integrating structural-functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism, and labeling theory, we don’t just get four perspectives on deviance. We get a 3D, multifaceted view that helps us understand not just what deviance is, but why it matters, how it happens, and what it means for all of us. It’s about seeing the whole landscape of deviance, from the broad sweeps of society to the intimate details of individual lives.

🔍 Reflect

Think about an act of ‘deviance’ you’ve witnessed or heard about. How might each of these theories explain it? Can you see how integrating these perspectives might give you a fuller understanding of what happened and why?

Summary

In this Section, we have explored the theoretical perspectives of deviance within sociology. We began by defining deviance as any behavior, belief, or condition that violates social norms, and we highlighted the importance of understanding deviance within the field of sociology.

We then delved into four main theoretical perspectives: 

1. structural-functionalism
2. conflict theory
3. symbolic interactionism
4. labeling theory

Structural-functionalism views society as a complex system where deviance serves a functional purpose by contributing to social equilibrium and adaptation.

Conflict theory emphasizes social inequality and power struggles as the root causes of deviance, highlighting how the dominant class influences the definition of deviance to maintain social control.

Symbolic interactionism explores the meanings individuals attach to deviant behavior and focuses on social interaction as a key element in constructing deviant identities.

Labeling theory emphasizes the social reaction to deviance and the consequences of labeling on individuals’ self-concepts and future behavior.

Throughout our exploration, we examined the strengths and weaknesses of each perspective and recognized the importance of using multiple perspectives to gain a comprehensive understanding of deviance.

We discussed how deviance could serve functions in society, challenge social norms, reinforce social control, or even act as a form of resistance against oppressive systems.

We also considered the limitations of each perspective, such as overlooking power dynamics or individual agency.

By integrating these perspectives, we can develop a more nuanced understanding of the complexities surrounding deviance.

We concluded by emphasizing the significance of using multiple perspectives in further research and real-world applications. Understanding deviance has practical implications in various fields and can contribute to the promotion of social justice and inclusive communities.

Overall, our exploration of the theoretical perspectives of deviance invites us to unravel the intricate tapestry of human behavior and social structures, paving the way for a more informed and comprehensive understanding of deviance in society.

Word Count:  5022 

Key Terms

deviance, sociology, theoretical perspectives, structural-functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism, labeling theory, social norms, social order, social stability, integration, social inequality, power struggles, social reaction, self-concept, primary deviance, secondary deviance, labeling process, self-fulfilling prophecy, resistance, power dynamics, social interaction, social construction, social control, multiple perspectives

References and Further Reading 

• Becker, H. S. (1963). Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. Free Press.
• Chambliss, W. J. (1973). The saints and the roughnecks. Society, 11(1), 24-31.
• Durkheim, É. (1895). The Rules of Sociological Method. The Free Press.
• Lemert, E. M. (1951). Social Pathology: A Systematic Approach to the Theory of Sociopathic Behavior. McGraw-Hill.
• Marx, K. (1848). The Communist Manifesto. London: Verso.
• Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, Self, and Society. University of Chicago Press.
• Merton, R. K. (1938). Social Structure and Anomie. American Sociological Review, 3(5), 672-682.

Modification History

File Created:  05/07/2023

Last Modified:  01/04/2024

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