Value-added theory explains how social movements develop and grow based on a combination of necessary conditions that lead to collective action.
Understanding Value-Added Theory
Value-added theory, developed by sociologist Neil Smelser in the 1960s, is a framework used to understand the development of social movements and collective behavior. Smelser drew inspiration from economics, where value is “added” at each stage of production. He applied this concept to social movements, suggesting that a series of necessary conditions must build upon each other before collective action can occur. According to value-added theory, social movements are not spontaneous but the result of a series of events that create the perfect environment for collective behavior.
This theory is important for understanding how social unrest, protests, and movements emerge, especially when society faces a range of pressures or crises.
Key Conditions of Value-Added Theory
Value-added theory proposes that several conditions must be met before a social movement can take shape. Each condition “adds value” to the likelihood of a movement emerging. These are sequential, meaning that each one builds on the previous, and the absence of any one condition can prevent a movement from occurring.
1. Structural Conduciveness
Structural conduciveness refers to the social conditions that allow for collective behavior to emerge. This is the basic groundwork, setting the stage for a social movement. For collective action to happen, the political, economic, or social environment must allow people to communicate, organize, and recognize their shared grievances.
For example, during the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, structural conduciveness existed because African Americans faced institutionalized segregation and discrimination. At the same time, there were legal protections for free speech and assembly, which allowed activists to organize and protest.
2. Structural Strain
Structural strain is the tension or stress within a society that results from unresolved issues or inequalities. This strain might come from economic hardship, social inequality, political repression, or rapid social change. People become aware of the strain, and this awareness leads to dissatisfaction with the status quo.
For instance, the economic disparity during the Great Depression created structural strain. Millions of people experienced poverty and unemployment, creating widespread dissatisfaction with the government and economic systems. These frustrations contributed to collective behavior, such as strikes and protests.
3. Generalized Belief
For collective action to take place, people must develop a shared understanding or belief about the source of their problems and the solutions to them. This generalized belief often includes an understanding of who or what is to blame for the strain, as well as the conviction that change is possible.
In social movements, leaders or influential figures often play a crucial role in shaping this shared belief. For example, during the labor movement, workers developed a generalized belief that their poor working conditions were caused by exploitation by wealthy industrialists, and that unionizing and striking could improve their situation.
4. Precipitating Factors
Even when there is structural strain and a shared belief about the causes of that strain, something often needs to “spark” the movement into action. Precipitating factors are specific events or incidents that trigger people to act. These factors often serve as the immediate cause of collective behavior.
For instance, the arrest of Rosa Parks in 1955 for refusing to give up her bus seat to a white passenger was a precipitating factor for the Montgomery Bus Boycott, a key event in the Civil Rights Movement. This event catalyzed action because it symbolized the larger issue of racial segregation.
5. Mobilization for Action
Once a precipitating event occurs, people must be organized and mobilized to act collectively. Mobilization involves bringing people together to plan and execute actions such as protests, strikes, or demonstrations. Leadership, resources, and communication are essential for this stage.
During the Arab Spring of 2011, social media played a significant role in mobilizing people for action. Platforms like Facebook and Twitter were used to organize protests and spread information, helping people across multiple countries to coordinate collective action against oppressive regimes.
6. Social Control
The final condition in value-added theory is the role of social control. Authorities, governments, or other powerful groups may try to suppress or regulate the emerging movement. The response of these authorities can either encourage or suppress further collective behavior. If social control is weak or ineffective, the movement is more likely to grow; if it is strong and effective, the movement may be contained.
For example, during the Tiananmen Square protests in China in 1989, the government eventually responded with military force, effectively suppressing the movement. In contrast, during the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the weakening of East German government control allowed for the collective movement to succeed.
Applications of Value-Added Theory
Value-added theory has been widely used to explain various social movements, from labor strikes to political revolutions. By breaking down the emergence of social movements into a series of steps, sociologists can analyze why certain movements succeed while others fail. Each step in the theory provides insight into the conditions that make collective action possible.
1. Civil Rights Movement
The Civil Rights Movement in the United States is a classic example of value-added theory in action. Structural conduciveness was present in the form of legal protections for speech and assembly, while structural strain arose from widespread racial segregation and discrimination. Generalized beliefs emerged around the idea that segregation was unjust and that nonviolent protest could bring change. The precipitating event was Rosa Parks’ arrest, and mobilization occurred through the work of organizations like the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). Finally, social control was attempted through police action and legal measures, but ultimately the movement succeeded in gaining civil rights reforms.
2. Occupy Wall Street
Occupy Wall Street, which began in 2011, is another example that fits within the framework of value-added theory. Structural conduciveness existed due to the widespread use of the internet and social media, allowing people to share their frustrations with economic inequality. Structural strain came from the global financial crisis of 2008, which led to job losses, housing foreclosures, and a sense of economic injustice. The generalized belief was the idea that “the 1%”—the wealthiest people in society—were to blame for the economic troubles of the “99%.” The precipitating factor was the occupation of Zuccotti Park in New York City, which quickly mobilized people around the country and the world. Social control efforts, such as police crackdowns, eventually led to the movement’s decline.
Criticisms of Value-Added Theory
While value-added theory offers a detailed framework for understanding social movements, it has faced some criticism. One of the main critiques is that it may oversimplify the complexity of social movements by focusing on a linear, step-by-step process. In reality, social movements are often messy and do not always follow a clear sequence. Additionally, the theory tends to emphasize external conditions over individual agency, which may overlook the role of emotions, spontaneity, and unpredictability in collective action.
Conclusion
Value-added theory provides a comprehensive model for understanding how social movements emerge and develop. By identifying the necessary conditions for collective action—such as structural conduciveness, strain, and mobilization—this theory helps explain why some social movements succeed while others fail. Despite its limitations, value-added theory remains a valuable tool for sociologists studying the dynamics of collective behavior and social change.
References and Further Reading
- Anderson, M. (1976). Sociological history and the working‐class family: Smelser revisited. Social History, 1(3), 317-334.
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Modification History File Created: 09/26/2024 Last Modified: 09/26/2024
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